Essays should fill at least four pages in a blue book (small writing, one side of paper).
Below are some tips.
PREPARATION BEFORE THE TEST
1. Questions could be one of three types: trace or narrate a story/process define the significance of something compare and contrast
2. The best way to prepare is to come to class, take notes, and form study groups. Brainstorm together and ask: "What facts need to be in this essay to make it complete?"
3. The essay questions are formed using the study guide. Use the study guide to help you. Read the text and review lectures for the additional information you will need.
4. Draft a list. List everything that will go toward making a full essay. This list will constitute the building blocks of your essay.
5. Demonstrate your this statement "in action," which means use examples. Incorporate facts and details. Don't ignore dates and places.
6. Memorize your list.
7. Conclude with, "What is the significance of all this?"
EXECUTION OF THE ESSAY ON EXAM DAY
8. Study the question randomly assigned to you (you will have already seen the possibilities on study guide).
9. Gauge time (about half hour).
10. Replicate the list you memorized in #4 above on scratch paper.
11. Think in terms of paragraphs. Let your list suggest the clusters that will comprise each paragraph.
12. Start each paragraph with a general statement. Then support your essay referring to your list.
13. Start writing.
OTHER POINTS
14. Refrain from moral judgment, religious confessional, or overdone Americanism. Adopt the stance of the dispassionate, scholarly observer.
15. Unlike a research paper, book review, or film review, your test essay is not expected to have polished style. However, it should demonstrate logical organization, critical thinking and mastery of content.
By Dr. Craig Livingston, revised by Prof. Ramsey
Tuesday, May 11, 2010
Midterm 1 Essay Questions (Oral exams too)
You will be required to answer one of the following two essay questions for the midterm:
Pick one of the following civilizations: Mesopotamia, Persia, or Egypt and compare and contrast it to one of the following civilizations: Greece, India or China. What were the political structures like? What were the religious and social structures of these communities? How was writing and architecture viewed in these cultures? Discuss how each dealt with warfare and contact from the outside. What was the role of women in these civilizations? Which group do you think was a “more successful society” and why? Make sure to note how were they similar or different?
Compare and contrast the civilizations of the early Greeks with the Greeks under Macedonian rule. How did the political structure change or remain the same? How did religious and social structures of these communities remain the same or change? How did the view of art, science and philosophy change? Discuss what changes occurred in warfare and contact from the outside. How and why was Alexander successful at “Hellenizing” his empire? What was the role of women in this new empire? Compare the role of the gods in The Iliad and Oedipus. What does that show about the changing Greek view of man’s place in the world and his relationship to the gods?
Pick one of the following civilizations: Mesopotamia, Persia, or Egypt and compare and contrast it to one of the following civilizations: Greece, India or China. What were the political structures like? What were the religious and social structures of these communities? How was writing and architecture viewed in these cultures? Discuss how each dealt with warfare and contact from the outside. What was the role of women in these civilizations? Which group do you think was a “more successful society” and why? Make sure to note how were they similar or different?
Compare and contrast the civilizations of the early Greeks with the Greeks under Macedonian rule. How did the political structure change or remain the same? How did religious and social structures of these communities remain the same or change? How did the view of art, science and philosophy change? Discuss what changes occurred in warfare and contact from the outside. How and why was Alexander successful at “Hellenizing” his empire? What was the role of women in this new empire? Compare the role of the gods in The Iliad and Oedipus. What does that show about the changing Greek view of man’s place in the world and his relationship to the gods?
Study Guide Midterm 1 Part 2/3
Define:
Atman-Brahman
Atomists
Brahmanas
Covenant
Daoism
Dharma
Kindu
Jains
Karma
Messiah
Opolis
Samsara
Sophists
Compare and contrast Athens to Sparta. Discuss government, economics, social structure, warfare, culture and the role of women.
Why was Greek citizenship so prized? How were citizens able to participate in government? What is direct democracy?
Discuss Persia: culture, social structure, military, religion and rulers.
Why was the Achaemenid Empire success for so long? And what was their basis for power?
How was the Mauryan Empire created? What role did Greeks have in its creation? How did Ashoka develop Mauryan power and presitige?
Discuss the role of women in early civilizations and empire. Why do you think women were not valued like men?
What was Who is Darius III and why is he important? What were the battles he fought against Alexander and what happened?
Discuss in details what happened when Alexander conquered Persia?
Define:
Acropolis
Agora
Areopagus
Delian League
League of Corinth
Epicureans
Heliocentric theory
Hoplite phalanx
The Iliad and the Odyssey
Logos
Magna Graecia
Minoan
Mycenaean
Panhellenic
Peloponnesian War
Symposium
Slavery
Helot
Agoge
Discuss what contributions Philip of Macedonia made to Greece. How did he come to power? What critical decisions led to his success?
Atman-Brahman
Atomists
Brahmanas
Covenant
Daoism
Dharma
Kindu
Jains
Karma
Messiah
Opolis
Samsara
Sophists
Compare and contrast Athens to Sparta. Discuss government, economics, social structure, warfare, culture and the role of women.
Why was Greek citizenship so prized? How were citizens able to participate in government? What is direct democracy?
Discuss Persia: culture, social structure, military, religion and rulers.
Why was the Achaemenid Empire success for so long? And what was their basis for power?
How was the Mauryan Empire created? What role did Greeks have in its creation? How did Ashoka develop Mauryan power and presitige?
Discuss the role of women in early civilizations and empire. Why do you think women were not valued like men?
What was Who is Darius III and why is he important? What were the battles he fought against Alexander and what happened?
Discuss in details what happened when Alexander conquered Persia?
Define:
Acropolis
Agora
Areopagus
Delian League
League of Corinth
Epicureans
Heliocentric theory
Hoplite phalanx
The Iliad and the Odyssey
Logos
Magna Graecia
Minoan
Mycenaean
Panhellenic
Peloponnesian War
Symposium
Slavery
Helot
Agoge
Discuss what contributions Philip of Macedonia made to Greece. How did he come to power? What critical decisions led to his success?
Monday, May 10, 2010
PP Notes Christianity
Jerusalem
Pax Romana
Centuries after the Roman Republic was established, and after the wars with Gaul, the Punic Wars with Carthage (Hannibal), the Macedonian Wars, and other civil wars and revolution, the great Pax Romana ensued, an age of relative peace and toleration…
The Roman Empire extended from Britain to Mesopotamia to Egypt, with a population of perhaps one hundred million people…
In 63 B.C. Pompey marched his Roman armies down the Jordan Valley and up to Jerusalem, entered the Holy of holies of the Temple, and proclaimed Jerusalem subject to the authority of Rome.
D.K. Ogden, Jerusalem the Eternal City, p. 153
Jesus of Nazareth
Born between 1 and 4 BCE, in Bethlehem (10 miles south of Jerusalem)
Legend of the Virgin Mary
Raised in Nazareth as a carpenter, spoke Aramaic
Follower of John the Baptist, embraced doctrine of baptism (like the Hindus)
Began his ministry near John’s arrest
Preached love of fellow man and God.
Doctrine of resurrection
Preformed miracles, healings and exorcists
The Sermon on the Mount
Enters Jerusalem on Passover, to visit the Temple (Jesus was a devout Jew)
Am empty tomb (3 days) and the last supper
Gnosticism: Egypt, Montanism in Asia Minor, Marcionism in Syria.
Catholicism was only one of dozens of "denominations" within the early church until it was adopted as the state religion of the Roman Empire.
After Death
The Apostles organize and preach, increasing the gentile population
The tradition remains oral
With the loss of the apostolic order, a new debate for hierarchy begins
Thus begins the title of “Bishop”
Constantine
Constantine began to help with ideological conflicts and then in 321CE, made Sunday a day of rest, as was custom in the worship of Sol Invictus
In 312 CE, at the Tigris River Constantine met Maxentius and claimed victory, making him the Emperor of the West and Supreme Pontiff (fist Pope).
324 CE Constantine defeats Licinius and becomes Emperor of Rome.
Organized a conference of Bishops in 325, to resolve doctrinal issues
325 BCE made Byzantium: New Rome – today known as
Church moves away from consecration
Assimilation of paganism within the churhc: Christmas celebrated on Dec. 25th – birthday of Sol Invictus, pagan gods taking the faces of saints
In his 50’s Constantine was finally baptized by Eusebius (scholar and theologian) before the Emperor’s death.
Up to 400 CE
The Empire was split into thirds (Constantine’s sons)
Pagan-Christian conflicts again arise and by the tension between Jews and Christians increase
400 CE – Huns invade Armenia, Visigoths moved across the alps later joined by the Francs and other Germans – by 410 CE they held Rome
The city had not been pentrated since the Gauls 700 years earlier.
St Augustine
Authority of church split between Rome and Constantinople 451 CE
Origins of the canon:
Pax Romana
Centuries after the Roman Republic was established, and after the wars with Gaul, the Punic Wars with Carthage (Hannibal), the Macedonian Wars, and other civil wars and revolution, the great Pax Romana ensued, an age of relative peace and toleration…
The Roman Empire extended from Britain to Mesopotamia to Egypt, with a population of perhaps one hundred million people…
In 63 B.C. Pompey marched his Roman armies down the Jordan Valley and up to Jerusalem, entered the Holy of holies of the Temple, and proclaimed Jerusalem subject to the authority of Rome.
D.K. Ogden, Jerusalem the Eternal City, p. 153
Jesus of Nazareth
Born between 1 and 4 BCE, in Bethlehem (10 miles south of Jerusalem)
Legend of the Virgin Mary
Raised in Nazareth as a carpenter, spoke Aramaic
Follower of John the Baptist, embraced doctrine of baptism (like the Hindus)
Began his ministry near John’s arrest
Preached love of fellow man and God.
Doctrine of resurrection
Preformed miracles, healings and exorcists
The Sermon on the Mount
Enters Jerusalem on Passover, to visit the Temple (Jesus was a devout Jew)
Am empty tomb (3 days) and the last supper
Gnosticism: Egypt, Montanism in Asia Minor, Marcionism in Syria.
Catholicism was only one of dozens of "denominations" within the early church until it was adopted as the state religion of the Roman Empire.
After Death
The Apostles organize and preach, increasing the gentile population
The tradition remains oral
With the loss of the apostolic order, a new debate for hierarchy begins
Thus begins the title of “Bishop”
Constantine
Constantine began to help with ideological conflicts and then in 321CE, made Sunday a day of rest, as was custom in the worship of Sol Invictus
In 312 CE, at the Tigris River Constantine met Maxentius and claimed victory, making him the Emperor of the West and Supreme Pontiff (fist Pope).
324 CE Constantine defeats Licinius and becomes Emperor of Rome.
Organized a conference of Bishops in 325, to resolve doctrinal issues
325 BCE made Byzantium: New Rome – today known as
Church moves away from consecration
Assimilation of paganism within the churhc: Christmas celebrated on Dec. 25th – birthday of Sol Invictus, pagan gods taking the faces of saints
In his 50’s Constantine was finally baptized by Eusebius (scholar and theologian) before the Emperor’s death.
Up to 400 CE
The Empire was split into thirds (Constantine’s sons)
Pagan-Christian conflicts again arise and by the tension between Jews and Christians increase
400 CE – Huns invade Armenia, Visigoths moved across the alps later joined by the Francs and other Germans – by 410 CE they held Rome
The city had not been pentrated since the Gauls 700 years earlier.
St Augustine
Authority of church split between Rome and Constantinople 451 CE
Origins of the canon:
PP Notes ROME
ROME
The Aeneid by Virgil
After the defeat at Troy, Aeneid wondered the sea with those who would follow. A seven year odyssey followed, then he was led by the gods to what would be Italy. There began Italy and the seeds of Roman dominance.
Romulus and Remus
The Etruscans
Rome as a Republic: Around 509 BCE the Etruscan king was forced out of Rome, and the Senate became the ruling body.
An alliance with other Latin communities followed which helped Rome maintain its independence until 340 BCE.
Government and Law
Executive Branch
The two leaders of the executive branch, the consuls, were elected for just one year by the upper class. They supervised the Senate and ordered the Roman army during wars. Other members of the executive branch were the tax collectors, mayors, city police, and other people in positions of power in cities.
Judgment
Slander – clubbed to death
A thief - flogged, unless a slave- thrown off Tarpaian rock on Rome's Capitoline hill
Defrauding a client – executed
Perjury - executed
Judge who took a bribe – executed
Conspiring with an enemy or delivering a Roman citizen to an enemy – executed
Vestal Virgins who were unchaste - buried alive
Infant deformities - put to death shortly after birth, and parents could kill infants if at least five neighbors consented.
Roman Patriarchs - could sell his son or daughter into slavery, could have a rebellious son put to death, daughters could be sold in marriage, could choose son’s wife or declare when to divorce.
Slavery in Rome
Important part of Roman society:
-debtors could be forced into slavery
-children could be sold into slavery
-traitors or conquered peoples became slaves
-slaves had no rights – property.
- could be killed, sold or abused.
- they could earn money and eventually buy freedom.
Class System
Plebeians were common citizens.
Patricians were aristocracy.
Military created varying classes:
Plebeian cavalrymen were Equites.
Slaves were made up of conquered people and debtors.
Wars
Gauls-390 BCE
Samanite Wars- 343 – 282 BCE
Punic Wars- 264-241, 218-202, 149-146 BCE
Macedonian Wars- 215, 197, 168 BCE
Julius Caesar’s Campaigns
Battle of Pharsalus - 48 BCE
Battle of Actium - 31 BCE
Tiberius Gracchus
Noble family, valiant military leader - complained warriors did not receive appreciation for securing Rome and poor needed land
In 133 he was elected as a tribune – ultimately to be killed
First recorded, political murder in Rome, in 400 years
Gains would soon follow (123)
Julius Caesar
First dictator of Rome 49 – 44 BCE:
Started out in a Spanish posting, then went on to govern over public games
Eventually became a consul. Conquered areas of the Rhine –leading to an attack on Rome.
Thus Julius Caesar was voted Dictator.
The Egypt saga led to his assassination on the 15th of March 44 BCE
Thus begins the era of Caesars
Octavian Augustus Caesar
First Emperor of Rome (44 BCE – 14 AD):
Took the name of Augustus
Caesar’s grandnephew and adopted son.
Defeated conservatives who had Caesar assassinated.
Defeated Marcus Antonius and Cleopatra in 27 BCE
THE GOLDEN AGE OF ROME ENDED (70 BCE – 14 AD)
Religion
Pantheon of gods, Jupiter ruling on Mt. Olympus, patron god of Rome
Mars –god of land and war was important to Rome
Vesta – goddess of fire
Venus – bringer of good fortune and victory, protector of feminine chastity.
RELIGIOUS PARTICIPATION was a patriotic duty.
Pontifex Maximus – religious head of Roman church.
Economics and Trade
Economy - trade and now, war.
Slave populations - all time highs (as high as 80%), eventually devaluing the market.
War increased, farmers decreased having a direct impact on the growth of Roman crops.
Taxes and tributes helped fund building projects, the military and public works.
Booty from war helped raise the standard of living for soldiers at various times.
Merchant class contributed to the economy and politics
Roads, bridges, and cities were built.
Literature and the Arts
Horace –poet, adapted Greek poetic meters to Latin
Vergil – epic poet of the Golden Age, wrote Aeneid
Ovid – exiled by Augustus, wrote sensual poetry
Livy – historian, believed in the virtues
Science and Philosophy
Romans were much more conservative and inhibited than the Greeks.
Astronomy was rejected, as was Greek medicine and philosophy.
Advances in military technology were made, while manufacturing technology again suffered.
The Decline of Rome (began around 120 CE)
Government lacked fiscal resources to maintain vast empire.
Lack of cohesion made government unstable.
Continual war eventually weakened ties of loyalty, disturbed trade, city life, etc.
Economic disruption reduced prosperity and tax revenues (concentration of land, number of tenants increased).
Slavery declined and regions focused internally.
Epidemics significantly reduced populations sizes.
The Aeneid by Virgil
After the defeat at Troy, Aeneid wondered the sea with those who would follow. A seven year odyssey followed, then he was led by the gods to what would be Italy. There began Italy and the seeds of Roman dominance.
Romulus and Remus
The Etruscans
Rome as a Republic: Around 509 BCE the Etruscan king was forced out of Rome, and the Senate became the ruling body.
An alliance with other Latin communities followed which helped Rome maintain its independence until 340 BCE.
Government and Law
Executive Branch
The two leaders of the executive branch, the consuls, were elected for just one year by the upper class. They supervised the Senate and ordered the Roman army during wars. Other members of the executive branch were the tax collectors, mayors, city police, and other people in positions of power in cities.
Judgment
Slander – clubbed to death
A thief - flogged, unless a slave- thrown off Tarpaian rock on Rome's Capitoline hill
Defrauding a client – executed
Perjury - executed
Judge who took a bribe – executed
Conspiring with an enemy or delivering a Roman citizen to an enemy – executed
Vestal Virgins who were unchaste - buried alive
Infant deformities - put to death shortly after birth, and parents could kill infants if at least five neighbors consented.
Roman Patriarchs - could sell his son or daughter into slavery, could have a rebellious son put to death, daughters could be sold in marriage, could choose son’s wife or declare when to divorce.
Slavery in Rome
Important part of Roman society:
-debtors could be forced into slavery
-children could be sold into slavery
-traitors or conquered peoples became slaves
-slaves had no rights – property.
- could be killed, sold or abused.
- they could earn money and eventually buy freedom.
Class System
Plebeians were common citizens.
Patricians were aristocracy.
Military created varying classes:
Plebeian cavalrymen were Equites.
Slaves were made up of conquered people and debtors.
Wars
Gauls-390 BCE
Samanite Wars- 343 – 282 BCE
Punic Wars- 264-241, 218-202, 149-146 BCE
Macedonian Wars- 215, 197, 168 BCE
Julius Caesar’s Campaigns
Battle of Pharsalus - 48 BCE
Battle of Actium - 31 BCE
Tiberius Gracchus
Noble family, valiant military leader - complained warriors did not receive appreciation for securing Rome and poor needed land
In 133 he was elected as a tribune – ultimately to be killed
First recorded, political murder in Rome, in 400 years
Gains would soon follow (123)
Julius Caesar
First dictator of Rome 49 – 44 BCE:
Started out in a Spanish posting, then went on to govern over public games
Eventually became a consul. Conquered areas of the Rhine –leading to an attack on Rome.
Thus Julius Caesar was voted Dictator.
The Egypt saga led to his assassination on the 15th of March 44 BCE
Thus begins the era of Caesars
Octavian Augustus Caesar
First Emperor of Rome (44 BCE – 14 AD):
Took the name of Augustus
Caesar’s grandnephew and adopted son.
Defeated conservatives who had Caesar assassinated.
Defeated Marcus Antonius and Cleopatra in 27 BCE
THE GOLDEN AGE OF ROME ENDED (70 BCE – 14 AD)
Religion
Pantheon of gods, Jupiter ruling on Mt. Olympus, patron god of Rome
Mars –god of land and war was important to Rome
Vesta – goddess of fire
Venus – bringer of good fortune and victory, protector of feminine chastity.
RELIGIOUS PARTICIPATION was a patriotic duty.
Pontifex Maximus – religious head of Roman church.
Economics and Trade
Economy - trade and now, war.
Slave populations - all time highs (as high as 80%), eventually devaluing the market.
War increased, farmers decreased having a direct impact on the growth of Roman crops.
Taxes and tributes helped fund building projects, the military and public works.
Booty from war helped raise the standard of living for soldiers at various times.
Merchant class contributed to the economy and politics
Roads, bridges, and cities were built.
Literature and the Arts
Horace –poet, adapted Greek poetic meters to Latin
Vergil – epic poet of the Golden Age, wrote Aeneid
Ovid – exiled by Augustus, wrote sensual poetry
Livy – historian, believed in the virtues
Science and Philosophy
Romans were much more conservative and inhibited than the Greeks.
Astronomy was rejected, as was Greek medicine and philosophy.
Advances in military technology were made, while manufacturing technology again suffered.
The Decline of Rome (began around 120 CE)
Government lacked fiscal resources to maintain vast empire.
Lack of cohesion made government unstable.
Continual war eventually weakened ties of loyalty, disturbed trade, city life, etc.
Economic disruption reduced prosperity and tax revenues (concentration of land, number of tenants increased).
Slavery declined and regions focused internally.
Epidemics significantly reduced populations sizes.
Notes PP Hebrews
Kush and Axum
Five Cultures
Mesopotamia
Egypt
Indus Valley
Shang China
Olmecs
Hebrews and Monotheism
Hebrew Society
Originally semi-nomadic herders (goats and sheep)
Lacked metal working, written language, sophisticated craftsmanship
Lived in tents
Patriarchal structure, tied to priesthood
Family and tribal loyalties
Justice was central to their life
Originally carried their religion with them:
Ark of the Covenant
Monotheism
Issues of El and Ba’al
Strife and conflict within Hebrew society
Validity of the Torah
Relationship between God and man
A Nation
The prophet Samuel selected a king
Saul, David, Solomon
Expansion and cohesion
Writing and calendaring are utilized
Warriors, taxes, trade, metallurgy, public works, agriculture
Israel and Judah split
Israel, Judah, Pheonicia, Damascus and Assyria politically embroiled
Weakening of a Hebrew nation ultimately led to displacement
Hebrew Writing
Record keeping people
Continuity of culture
Supports political life and commerce
Bears witness to relationship between the Hebrews and their god
Serves as historical insight
Religion
Ritual sacrifice
Priesthood
Annual holidays
Diet
Clothing/physical appearance
Temples and synagogues
Women
Sacred writings
The western wall of the Jewish temple
Five Cultures
Mesopotamia
Egypt
Indus Valley
Shang China
Olmecs
Hebrews and Monotheism
Hebrew Society
Originally semi-nomadic herders (goats and sheep)
Lacked metal working, written language, sophisticated craftsmanship
Lived in tents
Patriarchal structure, tied to priesthood
Family and tribal loyalties
Justice was central to their life
Originally carried their religion with them:
Ark of the Covenant
Monotheism
Issues of El and Ba’al
Strife and conflict within Hebrew society
Validity of the Torah
Relationship between God and man
A Nation
The prophet Samuel selected a king
Saul, David, Solomon
Expansion and cohesion
Writing and calendaring are utilized
Warriors, taxes, trade, metallurgy, public works, agriculture
Israel and Judah split
Israel, Judah, Pheonicia, Damascus and Assyria politically embroiled
Weakening of a Hebrew nation ultimately led to displacement
Hebrew Writing
Record keeping people
Continuity of culture
Supports political life and commerce
Bears witness to relationship between the Hebrews and their god
Serves as historical insight
Religion
Ritual sacrifice
Priesthood
Annual holidays
Diet
Clothing/physical appearance
Temples and synagogues
Women
Sacred writings
The western wall of the Jewish temple
Notes Roman Government
EXECUTIVE BRANCH -- the elected magistrates
Collegiality: With the exception of the dictatorship, all offices were collegial, that is, held by at least two men. All members of a college were of equal rank and could veto acts of other members; higher magistrates could veto acts of lower magistrates. The name of each office listed below is followed (in parentheses) by the number of office-holders; note that in several cases the number changes over time (normally increasing).
Annual tenure: With the exception of the dictatorship (6 months) and the censorship (18 months), the term of office was limited to one year. The rules for holding office for multiple or sucessive terms were a matter of considerable contention over time.
CONSULS (2): chief civil and military magistrates; invested with imperium (consular imperium was considered maius ("greater") than that of praetors); convened senate and curiate and centuriate assemblies.
PRAETORS (2-8): had imperium; main functions (1) military commands (governors) (2) administered civil law at Rome.
AEDILES (2): plebian (plebian only) and curule (plebian or patrician); in charge of religious festivals, public games, temples, upkeep of city, regulation of marketplaces, grain supply.
QUAESTORS (2-40): financial officers and administrative assistants (civil and military); in charge of state treasury at Rome; in field, served as quartermasters and seconds- in-command.
TRIBUNES (2-10): charged with protection of lives and property of plebians; their persons were inviolable (sacrosanct); had power of veto (Lat. "I forbid") over elections, laws, decrees of the senate, and the acts of all other magistrates (except dictator); convened tribal assembly and elicited plebiscites, which after 287 B.C. (lex Hortensia) had force of law.
CENSORS (2): elected every 5 years to conduct census, enroll new citizens, review roll of senate; controlled public morals and supervised leasing of public contracts; in protocol ranked below praetors and above aediles, but in practice, the pinnacle of a senatorial career (ex- consuls only) -- enormous prestige and influence (auctoritas).
DICTATOR (1): in times of military emergency appointed by consuls; dictator appointed a Master of the Horse to lead cavalry; tenure limited to 6 months or duration of crisis, whichever was shorter; not subject to veto.
SENATE
-originally an advisory board composed of the heads of patrician families, came to be an assembly of former magistrates (ex-consuls, -praetors, and -questors, though the last appear to have had relatively little influence); the most powerful organ of Republican government and the only body of state that could develop consistent long-term policy.
-enacted "decrees of the senate" (senatus consulta), which apparenly had not formal authority, but often in practice decided matters.
-took cognizance of virtually all public matters, but most important areas of competence were in foreign policy (including the conduct of war) and financial administration.
LEGISLATIVE BRANCH -- the three citizen assemblies (cf. Senate)
-all 3 assemblies included the entire electorate, but each had a different internal organization (and therefore differences in the weight of an individual citizen's vote).
-all 3 assemblies made up of voting units; the single vote of each voting unit determined by a majority of the voters in that unit; measures passed by a simple majority of the units.
-called comitia. specifically the comitia curiata, comitia centuriata, and comitia plebis tributa (also the concilium plebis or comitia populi tributa).
CURIATE ASSEMBLY: oldest (early Rome); units of organization: the 30 curiae (sing: curia) of the early city (10 for each of the early, "Romulan" tribes), based on clan and family associations; became obsolete as a legislative body but preserved functions of endowing senior magistrates with imperium and witnessing religious affairs. The head of each curia ages at least 50 and elected for life; assembly effectively controled by patricians, partially through clientela)
CENTURIATE ASSEMBLY: most important; units of organization: 193 centuries, based on wealth and age; originally military units with membership based on capability to furnish armed men in groups of 100 (convened outside pomerium); elected censors and magistrates with imperium (consuls and praetors); proper body for declaring war; passed some laws (leges, sing. lex); served as highest court of appeal in cases involving capital punishment. 118 centuries controlled by top 3 of 9 "classes" (minimum property qualifications for third class in first cent. B.C.-HS 75,000); assembly controlled by landed aristocracy.
TRIBAL ASSEMBLY: originally for election of tribunes and deliberation of plebeians; units of organization: the urban and 31 rural tribes, based on place of residence until 241 B.C., thereafter local significance largely lost; elected lower magistrates (tribunes, aediles, quaestors); since simpler to convene and register 35 tribes than 193 centuries, more frequently used to pass legislation (plebiscites). Voting in favor of 31 less densely populated rural tribes; presence in Rome require to cast ballot: assembly controlled by landed aristocracy (villa owners). Eventually became chief law-making body. < criminal and civil -- BRANCH>Civil litigation: chief official-Praetor. The praetor did not try cases but presided only in preliminary stages; determined nature of suit and issued a "formula" precisely defining the legal point(s) at issue, then assigned case to be tried before a delegated judge (iudex) or board of arbiters (3-5 recuperatores for minor cases, one of the four panels of "The one hundred men" (centumviri) for causes célèbres (inheritances and financial affairs of the rich)). Judge or arbiters heard case, rendered judgment, and imposed fine.
Criminal prosecution: originally major crimes against the state tried before centuriate assembly, but by late Republic (after Sulla) most cases prosecuted before one of the quaestiones perpetuae ("standing jury courts"), each with a specific jurisdiction, e.g., treason (maiestas), electoral corruption (ambitus), extortion in the provinces (repetundae), embezzlement of public funds, murder and poisoning, forgery, violence (vis), etc. Juries were large (c. 50-75 members), composed of senators and (after the tribunate of C. Gracchus in 122) knights, and were empanelled from an annual list of eligible jurors (briefly restricted to the senate again by Sulla).
OTHER
First plebeian consul in 366 B.C., first plebeian dictator 356, first plebeian censor 351, first plebeian praetor 336.
The many priestly colleges (flamines, augures, pontifex maximus, etc.) were also state offices, held mostly by patricians.
Imperium is the power of magistrates to command armies and (within limits) to coerce citizens.
Collegiality: With the exception of the dictatorship, all offices were collegial, that is, held by at least two men. All members of a college were of equal rank and could veto acts of other members; higher magistrates could veto acts of lower magistrates. The name of each office listed below is followed (in parentheses) by the number of office-holders; note that in several cases the number changes over time (normally increasing).
Annual tenure: With the exception of the dictatorship (6 months) and the censorship (18 months), the term of office was limited to one year. The rules for holding office for multiple or sucessive terms were a matter of considerable contention over time.
CONSULS (2): chief civil and military magistrates; invested with imperium (consular imperium was considered maius ("greater") than that of praetors); convened senate and curiate and centuriate assemblies.
PRAETORS (2-8): had imperium; main functions (1) military commands (governors) (2) administered civil law at Rome.
AEDILES (2): plebian (plebian only) and curule (plebian or patrician); in charge of religious festivals, public games, temples, upkeep of city, regulation of marketplaces, grain supply.
QUAESTORS (2-40): financial officers and administrative assistants (civil and military); in charge of state treasury at Rome; in field, served as quartermasters and seconds- in-command.
TRIBUNES (2-10): charged with protection of lives and property of plebians; their persons were inviolable (sacrosanct); had power of veto (Lat. "I forbid") over elections, laws, decrees of the senate, and the acts of all other magistrates (except dictator); convened tribal assembly and elicited plebiscites, which after 287 B.C. (lex Hortensia) had force of law.
CENSORS (2): elected every 5 years to conduct census, enroll new citizens, review roll of senate; controlled public morals and supervised leasing of public contracts; in protocol ranked below praetors and above aediles, but in practice, the pinnacle of a senatorial career (ex- consuls only) -- enormous prestige and influence (auctoritas).
DICTATOR (1): in times of military emergency appointed by consuls; dictator appointed a Master of the Horse to lead cavalry; tenure limited to 6 months or duration of crisis, whichever was shorter; not subject to veto.
SENATE
-originally an advisory board composed of the heads of patrician families, came to be an assembly of former magistrates (ex-consuls, -praetors, and -questors, though the last appear to have had relatively little influence); the most powerful organ of Republican government and the only body of state that could develop consistent long-term policy.
-enacted "decrees of the senate" (senatus consulta), which apparenly had not formal authority, but often in practice decided matters.
-took cognizance of virtually all public matters, but most important areas of competence were in foreign policy (including the conduct of war) and financial administration.
LEGISLATIVE BRANCH -- the three citizen assemblies (cf. Senate)
-all 3 assemblies included the entire electorate, but each had a different internal organization (and therefore differences in the weight of an individual citizen's vote).
-all 3 assemblies made up of voting units; the single vote of each voting unit determined by a majority of the voters in that unit; measures passed by a simple majority of the units.
-called comitia. specifically the comitia curiata, comitia centuriata, and comitia plebis tributa (also the concilium plebis or comitia populi tributa).
CURIATE ASSEMBLY: oldest (early Rome); units of organization: the 30 curiae (sing: curia) of the early city (10 for each of the early, "Romulan" tribes), based on clan and family associations; became obsolete as a legislative body but preserved functions of endowing senior magistrates with imperium and witnessing religious affairs. The head of each curia ages at least 50 and elected for life; assembly effectively controled by patricians, partially through clientela)
CENTURIATE ASSEMBLY: most important; units of organization: 193 centuries, based on wealth and age; originally military units with membership based on capability to furnish armed men in groups of 100 (convened outside pomerium); elected censors and magistrates with imperium (consuls and praetors); proper body for declaring war; passed some laws (leges, sing. lex); served as highest court of appeal in cases involving capital punishment. 118 centuries controlled by top 3 of 9 "classes" (minimum property qualifications for third class in first cent. B.C.-HS 75,000); assembly controlled by landed aristocracy.
TRIBAL ASSEMBLY: originally for election of tribunes and deliberation of plebeians; units of organization: the urban and 31 rural tribes, based on place of residence until 241 B.C., thereafter local significance largely lost; elected lower magistrates (tribunes, aediles, quaestors); since simpler to convene and register 35 tribes than 193 centuries, more frequently used to pass legislation (plebiscites). Voting in favor of 31 less densely populated rural tribes; presence in Rome require to cast ballot: assembly controlled by landed aristocracy (villa owners). Eventually became chief law-making body. < criminal and civil -- BRANCH>Civil litigation: chief official-Praetor. The praetor did not try cases but presided only in preliminary stages; determined nature of suit and issued a "formula" precisely defining the legal point(s) at issue, then assigned case to be tried before a delegated judge (iudex) or board of arbiters (3-5 recuperatores for minor cases, one of the four panels of "The one hundred men" (centumviri) for causes célèbres (inheritances and financial affairs of the rich)). Judge or arbiters heard case, rendered judgment, and imposed fine.
Criminal prosecution: originally major crimes against the state tried before centuriate assembly, but by late Republic (after Sulla) most cases prosecuted before one of the quaestiones perpetuae ("standing jury courts"), each with a specific jurisdiction, e.g., treason (maiestas), electoral corruption (ambitus), extortion in the provinces (repetundae), embezzlement of public funds, murder and poisoning, forgery, violence (vis), etc. Juries were large (c. 50-75 members), composed of senators and (after the tribunate of C. Gracchus in 122) knights, and were empanelled from an annual list of eligible jurors (briefly restricted to the senate again by Sulla).
OTHER
First plebeian consul in 366 B.C., first plebeian dictator 356, first plebeian censor 351, first plebeian praetor 336.
The many priestly colleges (flamines, augures, pontifex maximus, etc.) were also state offices, held mostly by patricians.
Imperium is the power of magistrates to command armies and (within limits) to coerce citizens.
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